تستعرض هذه الدراسة مجموعة واسعة من المؤلفات والدراسات والأبحاث التي تم نشرها وتتعلق بالنمذجة الهيدرولوجية في المناطق الجغرافية الجافة، بما في ذلك الأبحاث التي استخدمت نظم المعلومات الجغرافية وتقنية الاستشعار عن بعد كتقنيات مكانية،لبناء وتطوير نماذج هيدرولوجية ونماذج مستجمعات المياه. ناقشت هذه الدراسىةالمرجعية(Review Article)أهمية استخدام نماذج الأرتفاعاتالرقمية، وبيانات استخدام الأراضي، وبيانات التربة، وبيانات هطول الأمطار، وذلك بهدف تحديد دورها في تطبيقاتوتطويرالنمذجة الهيدرولوجية لأي منطقة جغرافية. كما تم التركيز على مجموعة من النماذج الهيدرولوجية التي استخدمت وطبقت على مجموعة من أراضي المناطق الجافة وأثبتت هذه النماذج نجاحاً كبيراً ومنها: أداة تقييم التربة والمياه (SWAT)ونموذج حركة الجريان السطحي والتعرية (Kineros2)، ونموذج تحديد خرائط مستويات المياه ومكونات التدفق والتبخر لمياه الأمطار (IHACRES)، ونظام الهيدرولوجية وهندسة النمذجة الهيدرولوجية (HEC-HMS). وقد تم اختيار منحنى الجريان السطحي (RCN) وعرضه بشكل مفصل كأحد أشهر الأساليب التي تستخدم في النماذج الهيدرولوجية المعتمدة على نظم المعلومات الجغرافية. تتطلب المناطق الجغرافية الجافة حول العالم مزيداً من اهتمام الباحثين للتغلب على عقباتالنمذجة الهيدرولوجية في تلك المناطق والتي تم تحديد بعضها في هذه المقالة الاستعراضية ومنها البحث عن أساليب وأدوات تحديد مكانية للأمطار وللتسرب الذي يحدث من التدفقات العابرة للفيضانات في المناطق الجافة وكيف يمكن الاستفادة من بيانات الاستشعار عن بعدوالتي يمكن استخدامها لمحاكاة الحدث بدلاً من استخدام بيانات القياس في الميدان، وكذلك تحسين بيانات الرصد من خلال إنشاء محطات قياس متعددة في المناطق المتأثرة.
A wide range of literature, which is related to hydrological modelling in arid regions, including the use of Geographic information System and Remote Sensing technology on hydrological modelling and watershed models, has been reviewed in this study. Digital elevation model data, land-use/cover data, soil data, and rainfall data, were discussed in detail regarding their role in hydrological modelling applications. This study discussed the use of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), the Kinematic Runoff and Erosion Model (Kineros2), the Identification of unit Hydrograph and Component flows from Rainfall, Evaporation and Streamflow (IHACRES) model, The Hydrologic Engineering Centre-Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS), and The runoff curve number (RCN). Those techniques with spatial perspectiveare examples of hydrological models that have been successfully implemented in arid regions. Arid areas require more attention from researchers in order to overcome obstacles that were identified in this study in hydrological modelling. For example, they should consider new methods for determining spatial rainfall and infiltration from transient flows that come from flash floods. In arid areas, RS data can be used for simulating the event instead of using gauged data. The observational data can also be improved by creating multiple measurement stations in affected areas.
Keywords: Spatial Techniques, Geographic Information System, HydrologicalModelling, Arid Region, and Remote Sensing.
المراجع
Abushandi, E., H., (2011a) Rainfall-Runoff Modeling in Arid Areas, Faculty for Geosciences, Geotechnique and Mining of the TechnischeUniversitätBergakademie Freiberg. p. 26-36.
Abushandi E., Merkel B. (2011b) Modelling rainfall runoff relations using HEC-HMS and IHACRES for a single rain event in arid region, Jordan. Water Resources Management Journal
Al-Abed N, Abdulla F, Abu Khyarah A (2005) GIS-hydrological models for managing water resources in the Zarqa River basin. Environmental Geology 47:405-411.
Al Mulla, M.M., 2005, Application of a hydrological model in a data-poor arid region catchment: a case study of Wadi Ham, United Arab Emirates, Cranfield University, p: 97 – 101.
Al-Qurashi, A., N. McIntyre, H. Wheater, and C. Unkrich, 2008, Application of the Kineros2 rainfall-runoff model to an arid catchment in Oman: Journal of Hydrology, v. 355, p. 91-105.
Al-Turbak AS, 1996, Geomorphoclimatic peak discharge model with a physically based infiltration component. Journal of hydrology 176:1-12.
Arnold, J. G., R. Srinivasan, R. S. Muttiah, and J. R. Williams, 1998, Large area hydrologic modeling and assessment part I: Model Development 1: JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, v. 34, p. 73-89.
Arnold, J.G., Williams, J.R., Nicks, A., and Sammons, N.B. 1990. SWWRB-A basin Scale Simulation Model. College Station: Texas A&M Press.
ASCE, 1999. GIS Modules and Distributed Models of the Watershed. A report by the ASCE Task Committee on GIS Modules and Distributed Models of Watershed, P.A. DeBarray and R.G. Quimpo (Eds.), Reston, VI.
Beckers, J.; Smerdon, B.; Wilson, M. (2009). Review of hydrologic models for forest management and climate change applications in British Columbia and Albert. Available: http://www.forrex.org/sites/default/files/forrex_series/FS25.pdf. Last accessed 20th Jul 2012.
Beven, K., 1984, Infiltration into a class of vertically non-uniform soils: Hydrological Sciences Journal-Journal Des Sciences Hydrologiques, v. 29, p. 425-434.
Beven, K., 1995, Linking Parameters across Scales - Subgrid Parameterizations and Scale-Dependent Hydrological Models: Hydrological Processes, v. 9, p. 507-525.
Beven, K., 2001, Rainfall-runoff modelling: the primer: Chichester, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 355 p.
Bhaskar, N.R., James, W.P. and Devulapalli, R.S. (1992). Hydrologic parameter estimation using geographic information system. J. Water Resour. Plann. Manag., ASCE, 118(5): 492-512.
Borah, D. K., G. Yagow, A. Saleh, P. L. Barnes, W. Rosenthal, E. C. Krug, and L. M. Hauck. 2006. Sediment and nutrient modeling for TMDL development and implementation. Trans. ASABE 49(4): 967‐986.
Boughton, W., and F. Chiew, 2007, Estimating runoff in ungauged catchments from rainfall, PET and the AWBM model: Environmental Modelling & Software, v.22, p. 476-487.
Braun, G.M., N.S. Levine, S.J. Roberts, and A.N. Samel. 2003. “A Geographic Information Systems Methodology for the Identification of Groundwater Recharge Areas in Waukesha County, Wisconsin.” Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 9(3): 267-278.
Brennen, J. (1994). Developing an integrated, multi-purpose geographic information system. Public Works, 125(9): 43-46.
Bronstert, A., 2004, Rainfall-runoff modelling for assessing impacts of climate and land-use change: Hydrological Processes, v. 18, p. 567-570.
Chow, V. T. (ed.) (1964) Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, USA.
Chow, V. T., Maidment, D. R. & Mavs, L. W. (1988) Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
Croke, B.F.W. 2004, ‘A technique for deriving the average event unit hydrograph from streamflow-only data for quick-flow-dominant catchments’, in preparation.
Croke, B.F.W., A.B. Smith and A.J. Jakeman 2002, ‘A One-Parameter Groundwater Discharge Model Linked to the IHACRES Rainfall-Runoff Model’. In: A. Rizzoli and A. Jakeman (eds), Proceedings of the 1st Biennial Meeting of the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society, University of Lugano, Switzerland, vol I, pp 428-433.
Croke BFW, Andrews F, Jakeman AJ, Cuddy SM, Luddy A (2006) IHACRES classic plus: A redesign of the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model. Environmental Modelling & Software 21:426-427.
Croke, B.F.W. and A.J. Jakeman 2004, ‘A Catchment Moisture Deficit module for the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model’, Environmental Modelling and Software, vol 19, pp 1-5.
Croke, B.F.W., Jakeman, A.J., 2008. Use of the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model in arid and semi arid regions. In: Wheater, H.S., Sorooshian, S., Sharma, K.D. (Eds.), Hydrological Modelling in Arid and Semi-arid Areas. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 41–48.
Dastorani, M. T., Khodaparast, R., Talebi, A., Vafakhah, M., Dashti, J., 2011. Determination of the Ability of HEC-HMS Model Components in Rainfall-run-off Simulation. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5: 790-797.
Dawod G, Mirza M, Al-Ghamdi K (2011) GIS-based spatial mapping of flash flood hazards in Makkah city, Saudi Arabia. J GeogrInfSyst 3(3):217–223.
De Pauw E., Göbel W. & Adam H. (2000) Agrometeorological aspects of agriculture and forestry in the arid zones. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 103, 43-58.
Dewan AM, Nishigaki M, Komatsu M. (2004) DEM based flood delineation in Dhaka city, Bangladesh.JFacul Environ SciTechnol 9(1):99–110.
DHI, 1993, Mike11, A microcomputer-based modelling system for rivers and channels, User and reference manual, in D. H. Institute, ed., Hørsholm, Denmark.
DiLuzioM., J.G. Arnold, and R. Srinivasan, 2004. Integration of SSURGO Maps And Soil Parameters Within A Geographic Information System And Nonpoint Source Pollution Model. J. Soil Water Conserv. 59(4): 123-133.
Dye P.J. and B. F. W. Croke 2003, ‘Evaluation of streamflow predictions by the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model in two South African catchments’, Environmental Modelling and Software, vol 18, pp 705-712.
Engman, E. T. (1986) Hydrologie research before and after AgRISTARS. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. GE-14(1), 5-11.
Fadil, A. Rhinane, H., Kaoukaya, A. Kharchaf, Y. and Bachir, O. A., 2011, Hydrologic Modeling of the Bouregreg Watershed (Morocco) Using GIS and SWAT Model, Journal of Geographic Information System 3, 279-289.
Frederickson, K. (1993). GIS-Hydrologic model interface for flood prediction and assessment. Arlington, Va.: Triservice CADD/GIS Training Symposium.
Fresco LO (1994) Imaginable futures, a contribution to thinking about land use planning (eds Fresco LO, Stroosnijder L, Bouma J, van Keulen H), pp. 1–8. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
KITE G. W. & A. PIETRONIRO (1996): Remote sensing applications in hydrological modeling, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 41:4, 563-591.
Garbrecht, J., and L.W. Martz, 2000. Digital elevation model issues in water resources modeling. Hydrology and Hydraulic Modeling Support with Geographic Information System (D. Maidment and D. Djokic, editors), ESRI Press, Redlands, California, pp. 1–28.
Ghanbarpour M. Reza. (2007). Evaluation of flood mitigation alternatives using hydrological modeling. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. 11 (4), p113-117.
Green, W. H., and G. A. Ampt. 1911. Studies on soil physics. J. Agric. Sci. 4(1): 1-24.
Gunduz, O. and Aral, M.M. (2003). “Hydrologic modeling of the lower Altamaha river basin.” In Proceedings of the 2003 Georgia Water Resources Conference, edited by K.J. Hatcher, Athens, Georgia, USA.
Jain, M. K., Kothyari, U. C., and Ranga-Raju, K. (2004). A GIS based distributed rainfall-runoff model. Journal of Hydrology, 299(1-2), 107-135.
Jakeman, A. J., and G. M. Hornberger, 1993, How much complexity is warranted in a rainfall-runoff model: Water Resources Research, v. 29, p. 2637-2649.
Jakubauskas, M.E., Whistler, J.L., Dillworth, M.E. and Martinko, E.A. (1992). Classifying remotely sensed data for use in an agricultural nonpoint source pollution model. J. of Soil and Water Cons., 47(2): 179-183.
Jenson, S. K. and Domingue, J. O.: 1988, ‘Extracting topographic structure from digital elevation data for geographic information systems analyses, Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens. 54(11), 1593-1600.
Johnson, L.E. (1989). A digital map based hydrologic modelling system. Photogramm. Engg. and Remote Sensing, 55(6): 911-917.
Kalin, L., and M. M. Hantush. 2003. Evaluation of sediment transport models and comparative application of two watershed models. EPA/600/R-03/139. Cincinnati, Ohio: USEPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory.
Knisel, W. G. 1980. CREAMS: A field scale model for chemicals, runoff, and erosion from agricultural management systems. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, Conservation Research Report no. 26.
Knebl, M. R., Yang, Z.-L., Hutchison, K., and Maidment, D. R. (2005). Regional scale flood modeling using NEXRAD rainfall, GIS, and HEC-HMS/RAS: a case study for the San Antonio River Basin Summer 2002 storm event. Journal of Environmental Management, 75, 325-336.
Kirkby, M. J. (1978) Hillslope Hydrology, John Wiley, New York, USA, 325-363.
Kokkonen, T., A.J. Jakeman, P.C. Young and H.J. Koivusalo 2003, ‘Predicting daily flows in ungauged catchments: model regionalization from catchment descriptors at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina’, Hydrological Processes, vol 17, pp 2219-2238.
Kokkonen, T., Koivusalo, H. &Karvonen, T. 2001 A semi-distributed approach to rainfall-runoff modeling – a case study in a snow affected catchment. Environ. Model. Soft. 16(5), 481–493.
Kouwen, N., Soulis, E.D., Pietroniro, A., Donald, J. and Harrington, R.A. (1993). Grouped response units for distributed hydrologic modeling. J. Water Resour. Plann. and Manag., ASCE, 119(3): 289-305.
Lee, M.T. and Terstriep, M.L. (1991). Applications of GIS for water quality modelling in agriculture and urban watershed. In: Hydr. Engg., Proc., 1991, Nat. Conf., ASCE, New York, NY, pp. 961-965.
Leonard, R. A., W. G. Knisel, and D. A. Still. 1987. GLEAMS: Groundwater loading effects of agricultural management systems. Transactions of the ASAE 30(5): 1403-1418.
Littlewood, I.G., B.F.W. Croke, A.J. Jakeman and M. Sivapalan 2003, ‘The role of ‘top-down’ modelling for Prediction in Ungauged Basins (PUB)’, Hydrological Processes, vol 17, pp 1673-1679.
Lu,M., Koike,T. and Hayakawa,N. (1996)”A distributed hydrological modeling system linking GIS and hydrological models”, HydroGIS 95: Application of Geographic Information Systems in Hydrology and water Resources Management (Proc. Vienna Conference April IAHS Publ.No. 235ppp.141-148.
Maidment, D.R. (1993). GIS and Hydrologic modeling. In: Environmental Modeling with G1S, M.F. Goodchild, B.O. Parks and L.T. Steyaert (eds.), New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Mark. D. M. 1975. 'Computer analysis of topography: B comparison of terrain storage methods'. Gcoyra/wkaAnnulrr, 57A,I 79- 188.
McConnell W and Moran EF (2001) Meeting in the Middle: The Challenge of Meso-Level Integration. LUCC Focus 1 Office, Anthropological Center for Training and Research on Global Environmental Change, Indiana University.
McIntyre, N., and A. Al-Qurashi, 2009, Performance of ten rainfall-runoff models applied to an arid catchment in Oman: Environmental Modelling & Software, v. 24, p. 726-738.
Michaud J, and Sorooshian S. 1994. Comparison of simple versus complex distributed runoff models on a midsized semiarid watershed. Water Resources Research 30(3): 593–605.
Moghadas, S. (2009). Long-term Water Balance of an Inland River Basin in an Arid Area, North-Western China. Division of Water Resources Engineering, Department of Building and Environmental Technology, Lund University. Chpter 2. p10-13.
Moon, J., Srinivasan, R., and Jacobs, J. H. (2004). Stream flow estimation using spatially distributed rainfall in the Trinity River basin, Texas. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 47(5), 1445-1451.
Moore, I. D. 1988. 'A contour-based terrain analysis program for the environmental sciences (TAPES)', Trans. Am, Geo phys.Uni on. 69,345.
Moore, I. D., R. B. Grayson and A. R. Ladson, (1991), "Digital Terrain Modelling: A Review of Hydrological, Geomorphological, and Biological Applications," Hydrological Processes, 5(1): 3-30.
Mott Macdonald, 1992. Groundwater recharge schemes for Saham-Sohar area – data analysis report. Sultanate of Oman, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Internal Report, May 1992, 48p. Nouh, M., 2006. Wadi flow in the Arabian Gulf states. Hydrological Processes 20, 2393–2413.
Nasri, M., Soleimani, F., Sardoo, Katani. M. (2011) Simulation of the Rainfall-Runoff Process Using of HEC-HMS Hydrological Model. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. 78, p548-551.
Neitsch, S. L., Arnold, J. G., Kiniry, J. R.,Williams, J. R., and King, K.W.: Soil and water assessment tool theoretical documentation: version 2000, Texas water resources institute, College station,Texas, USA, 2002.
NOAA. (2008). Hazards/Climate Extremes.
Ogden, F. L., Garbrecht, J., DeBarry, P.A. and Johnson, L. E. (2001). “GIS and distributed watershed models II: Modules, Interfaces, and Models”, Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE, 6 (6), pp. 515-523.
O’Callaghan, J. F. and Mark, D. M.: 1984, ‘The extraction of drainage networks from digital elevation data’, Comp. Vis. Graph. Image Process. 28, 323–344.
O’Loughlin, E. M.: 1986, ‘Prediction of surface saturation zones in natural catchments by topographic analysis’, Water Resource Res. 22, 794–804.
Ouessar, M., A. Bruggeman, F. Abdelli, R.H. Mohtar, D. Gabriels, and W.M. Cornelis. 2009. Modelling water-harvesting systems in the arid south of Tunisia using SWAT. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 13:2003-2021.
Panuska, J. C., Moore, 1. D., and Kramer, L. A. 1990. 'Terrain analysis: integration into the Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution (AGNPS) model', J. Soil and Water Conserv., in press.
Peucker, T. K., Fowler, R. J., Little, J. J., and Mark, D. M. 1978. 'The triangulated irregular network', Proc. Auto Carto If/, Am. Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Fallschurch, Virqnia, 516-540.
Perrin, C., C. Michel, and V. Andréassian, 2003, Improvement of a parsimonious model for streamflow simulation: Journal of Hydrology, v. 279, p. 275-289.
Pilgrim, D. H., T. G. Chapman, and D. G. Doran, 1988, Problems of Rainfall-Runoff Modeling in Arid and Semiarid Regions: Hydrological Sciences Journal-Journal Des Sciences Hydrologiques, v. 33, p. 379-400.
Ponce, V. M. and R. H. Hawkins. 1996. Runoff curve number: Has it reached maturity? Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 1(1):11-19.
Purreza, M. Shahri, 2007, flood mapping using GIS, study design: a part of Ghareaghaj river in Fars province, Iran, GIS conference, p 24, Tehran.
Quinn, P., Beven, K., Chevallier, P. and Planchon, O.: 1991, ‘The prediction of hillslope flow paths for distributed hydrological modelling using digital terrain models’, Hydrol. Process. 5(1), 59-79.
Rango, A. (1994). Application of remote sensing methods to hydrology and water resources. J. Hydro. Sci., 39(4): 309-319.
Ritzema H.P. 1994. Drainage Principles and Applications, Publication 16, second revised edition, 1994, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. ISBN 90 70754 3 39.
Reed, S., J. Schaake, and Z. Y. Zhang, 2007, A distributed hydrologic model and threshold frequency-based method for flash flood forecasting at ungauged locations: Journal of Hydrology, v. 337, p. 402-420.
Ross, M.A. and Tara, PD. (1993). Integrated hydrologic modelling with geographic information systems. J. of Water Resour. Plann. and Manag., ASCE, 119(2):129-140.
Scharffenberg, W., and M. Fleming, 2010, Hydrologic modeling system HEC-HMS v3.2 user’s manual.: Davis, USA, USACE-HEC.
Semmens, D.J., D.C. Goodrich, C.L. Unkrich, R.E. Smith, D.A. Woolhiser, and S.N. Miller (2008). KINEROS2 and the AGWA modeling framework; in Wheater, H., S. Sorooshian, and K.D. Sharma, (Eds.) Hydrological Modelling In Arid and Semi-Arid Areas, Cambridge University Press, New York, 206pp.
Schaffner, M., C.L. Unkrich, D.C. Goodrich, 2010: Application of the KINEROS2 site specific model to south-central NY and northeast PA: forecasting gaged and ungaged fast responding watersheds. NWS Eastern Region Technical Attachment, No. 2010-01
Schmidt, F. and Persson, A.: 2003, ‘Comparison of DEM data capture and topographic wetness Indices’ Precision Agricul. 4, 179–192.
Schneider, K., Ketzer, B., Breuer, L., Vach´e, K. B., Bernhofer, C., and Frede, H.-G.: Evaluation of evapotranspiration methods for model validation in a semi-arid watershed in northern China, Adv. Geosci., 11, 37–42, 2007, http://www.adv-geosci.net/11/37/2007/.
Schreider, S.Y., Jakeman, A.J., Pittock, A.B., 1996. Modelling rainfall–runoff from large catchment to basin scale: the Goulburn Valley, Victoria. Hydrological Processes 10 (6), 863–876.
Sefton, C. E. M. &Howarth, S. M. 1998 Relationships between dynamic response characteristics and physical descriptors of catchments in England and Wales. J. Hydrol. 211(1–4), 1–16.
Shadeed, S., and M. Almasri, 2010, Application of GIS-based SCS-CN method in West Bank catchments, Palestine: Water Science and Engineering, v. 3, p. 1-13.
Sharpley, A. N., and J. R. Williams, eds., 1990: EPIC-Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator, 1. Model documentation. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Tech. Bull. 1768.
Singh, V. P., and Woolhiser, D. A. (2002). Mathematical modeling of watershed hydrology. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 7(4), 270-292.
Sloan, W.T. 2000, ‘A physics-based function for modelling transient groundwater discharge at the watershed scale’, Water Resources Research, vol 36, pp 225-241.
Srinivasan, R. and Engel, B.A. (1994). A spatial decision support system for assessing agricultural nonpoint source pollution. Water Resour. Bull., AWRA, 30(3):441-452.
Tim, U.S. (I 995). Emerging technologies for hydrologic and water quality modeling research. Trans. of the ASAE, 39(2): 465-476.
Tim, U.S., Milner, M. and Majure, J. (1992). Geographic information systems/simulation model linkage: Processes, problems and opportunities. ASAE paper No.92-3610, ASAE, St. Joseph, Michigan.
Tribe, A. 1992. Automated Recognition of Valley Heads from Digial Elevation Models. Earth Surface Processes & Landforms, 16(1):33-49.
U .S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1986.Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds. Tech. Release 55.
Verma, A.K., M.K. Jha and R.K. Mahana, 2010. Evaluation of HEC-HMS and WEPP for simulating watershed runoff using remote sensing and geographical information system. Paddy Water Environ., 8: 131-144.
Vieux, B. E. (2004). Distributed hydrologic modeling using GIS. Dordrecth, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Wheater, H.S., 1981. Northern Oman Flood Study. Imperial College, London, p. 270.
Wheater, H. S., Sorooshian, S. & Sharma, K. D. 2008 Hydrological Modeling in Arid and Semi-arid Areas, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Whitehead, P., Wade, A. & Flynn, N. 2006 Water life and civilization project, second year report.
Williams, J.R., C.A. Jones, and P.T. Dyke. 1984. A Modeling Approach to Determining the Relationship between Erosion and Soil Productivity. Transactions of the ASAE 27:129-144.
Wilson JP, Mitasova H, Wright DJ. 2000. Water resource applications of Geographic Information Systems. URISA Journal 12(2): 61–79.
WMO, 2007a: Guidance on Flash Flood Management ‐ Recent Experience from Central and Eastern Europe. APFM, Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization. Available at: http://www.apfm.info/pdf/pilot_projects/APFM‐CEE‐Synthesis_web.pdf (last accessed 18 May 2012).
Wood, E. F, Sivapalan, M. &Beven, K. (1990) Similarity and scale in catchment storm response. Rev. Geophys. 28(1), 1-18.
Yatheendradas, S., Wagener, T., Gupta, H., Unkrich, C.L., Goodrich, D.C., Schaffner, M., Stewart, A., 2008. Understanding uncertainty in distributed flash flood forecasting for semiarid regions. Water Resources Research, in press, doi:10.1029/2007WR005940.
Ye, W., Bates, B.C., Viney, N.R., Sivapalan, M., Jakeman, A.J., 1997. Performance of conceptual rainfall–runoff models in low-yielding ephemeral catchments. Water Resources Research 33 (1), 153–166.
Ye, W., Jakeman, A.J., Barnes, C.J., 1995. A parametrically efficient model for prediction of streamflow in an Australian benchmark catchment with complex storage dynamics. Environment International 21 (5), 475–758.
Yener, M.K., A.U. Sorman and T. Gezgin, 2006. Modeling studies with HEC-HMS and runoff scenarious in Yuvacik Basin, Turkiye. http://www.dsi.gov.tr/english/congress2007/chapter_4/123.pdf.
Young, R.A., Onstad, C.A., Bosch, D.D. and Anderson, W. P. (1987). AGNPS: An agricultural nonpoint source pollution model: A large watershed analysis tool. USDA Cons. Res. Rept. 35, pp.77.
Yu P, Jeng Y (1997) A study on grid based distributed rainfall runoff models. Water Resources Management 11: 83-99.
US Army Corp of Engineers, Hydrologic Center, 2006, Geospatial Hydrologic Modeling Extension, HEC-GeoHMS, User’s Manual (version 1.1)
Zhan, X. and Huang, M. L. 2004. ArcCN-Runoff: an ArcGIS tool for generating curve number and runoff maps. Environ. Model. Softw. 19(10): 875–879.
Zhang, H., Haan, C.T. and Nofziger, D.L. (1990). Hydrologic modeling with GIS: An overview. Applied Engg. In Agriculture, 6(4): 453-458.
Zorkeflee, A.H., H. Nuramidah and S.Y. Mohd, 2009. Integrated river basin management (IRBM): Hydrologic modelling using HEC-HMS for sungaikurau basin, Perak. Proceedongs of the International Conference on Water Resources, (ICWR'09), River Basin Management Society, pp: 1-7.